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  • America
    • Introduction
      • Course Overview
      • Policies
      • Essential Documents
    • 1492-1754
      • Colonization
    • 1754-1848
      • Revolution
      • Constitution
      • Expansion
    • 1848-1898
      • The Civil War
      • The Gilded Age
    • 1898-1945
      • The American Empire
      • The Great Depression
      • The Second World War
    • 1945-1991
      • The Early Cold War
      • The Great Society
      • The Late Cold War
    • 1991-Today
      • The Culture Wars
      • The War on Terror
  • Europe
    • Introduction
    • 1200-1450
    • 1450-1648
      • Renaissance
      • Reformation
      • Exploration
      • Links
      • Assignments
      • Videos
        • John Green Videos
        • Tom Richey Videos
        • Rick Steves Videos
        • Assorted Videos
      • Slideshows
    • 1648-1815
      • Sovereignty
      • Commerce
      • Reason
      • Revolution
      • Links
      • Readings and Assignments
      • Videos
        • John Green Videos
        • Tom Richey Videos
        • Assorted Videos
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        • Discovery
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        • Land Empires
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        • Postwar World
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Reformation,
c. 1450-1648 CE

Picture
Differing conceptions of salvation and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the heart of the conflicts among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the Anabaptists, ​and the Catholic Church. ​

Reformation,

c. 1450-1648 CE

Late medieval reform movements in the church - including lay piety, mysticism, and Christian humanism -  created a momentum that propelled a new generation of 16th-century reformers, such as Erasmus and Martin Luther. After 1517, when Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing ecclesiastical abuses and the doctrines that led to them, Christianity fragmented, even though religious uniformity remained the ideal. Some states, such as Spain and Portugal, which had recently expelled Muslims and Jews, held fast to this ideal. Others did not, notably the Netherlands and lands under Ottoman control, which accepted Jewish refugees.
 
In central Europe, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) permitted each state of the Holy Roman Empire to be either Catholic or Lutheran at the option of the prince. By the late 16th century, northern European countries were generally Protestant and Mediterranean countries generally Catholic. To re-establish order after a period of religious warfare, France introduced limited toleration of the minority Calvinists within a Catholic kingdom (Edict of Nantes, 1598; revoked in 1685). Jews remained a marginalized minority wherever they lived.
 
Differing conceptions of salvation and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the heart of the conflicts among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the Anabaptists, and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church affirmed its traditional theology at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), ruling out any reconciliation with the Protestants and inspiring the resurgence of Catholicism in the 17th century. Religious conflicts merged with and exacerbated long-standing political tensions between the monarchies and nobility across Europe, dramatically escalating these conflicts as they spread from the Holy Roman Empire to France, the Netherlands, and England. Economic issues such as the power to tax and control ecclesiastical resources further heightened these clashes.
 
All three motivations—religious, political, and economic—contributed to the brutal and destructive Thirty Years’ War, which was ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The treaty established a new balance of power with a weakened Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia also added Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as an accepted religion in the Holy Roman Empire, ensuring the permanence of European religious pluralism. However, pluralism did not mean religious freedom; the prince or ruler still controlled the religion of the state, and few were tolerant of dissenters.
​

Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf

Latin Christendom

Objectives:
  1. ​Explain the context in which the religious, political, and cultural developments of the 16th and 17th centuries took place.
  2. Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the Catholic Church from 1450 to 1648.

Latin Christendom

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Main facade of Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome
Picture
Criticism of the Church by Desiderius Erasmus, the leading Christian humanist, set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.
  • Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin criticized Catholic abuses and established new interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice. 

  • Christian humanism, embodied in the writings of Erasmus, employed Renaissance learning in the service of religious reform.
  • Latin Christendom
  • Roman Catholic Church
  • lay piety
  • Book of Margery Kempe
  • Beguines and Beghards
  • Hussites
  • Lollards
  • Christian mysticism
  • Catherine of Siena
  • Catherine of Genoa
  • Thomas à Kempis (The Imitation of Christ)
  • Inquisition
  • Purgatory
  • Pope Leo X​
  • indulgence
  • Johann Tetzel
  • St. Peter’s Basilica
  • nepotism
  • simony
  • pluralism
  • absenteeism
  • Pope Alexander VI 
  • Cesare Borgia
  • Christian humanism
  • Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (Praise of Folly)
  • Thomas More (Utopia)

Alchemy and Astrology

  • Popular culture, leisure activities, and rituals reflecting the continued popularity of folk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal ties and norms. 
  • Gerolamo Cardano
  • John Dee
  • Nostradamus (Prophecies)
Picture
Occultist John Dee was court astrologer to Queen Elizabeth I of England.
Picture
Nostradamus was a French seer who published prophecies that have since become famous.  He's been credited with predicting the Great Fire of London, the rise of Napoleon and Adolf Hitler, and 9/11.
Latin Christendom Quizlet
The Church Before the Reformation, Alchemy, and Astrology

The Protestant Reformation

Objective: Explain how and why religious belief and practices changed from 1450 to 1648.
  • Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin criticized Catholic abuses and established new interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice. Responses to Luther and Calvin included religious radicals, including the Anabaptists, and other groups, such as German peasants.

  • Monarchs and princes, including the English rulers Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, initiated religious reform from the top down in an effort to exercise greater control over religious life and morality. 

  • Protestant reformers used the printing press to disseminate their ideas, which spurred religious reform and helped it to become widely established.

  • Some Protestants, including Calvin and the Anabaptists, refused to recognize the subordination of the church to the secular state.

  • Some Protestant groups sanctioned the notion that wealth accumulation was a sign of God’s favor and a reward for hard work.
    ​
  • Religious conflicts became a basis for challenging the monarchs’ control of religious institutions.

Lutheranism

Picture
Martin Luther's questioning of the Church sparked the Reformation.
Picture
The burning of Little Jack (Jacklein) Rohrbach, a leader of the peasants during the German Peasants' Revolt.
  • Protestantism
  • Lutheranism
  • Martin Luther
  • Wittenberg
  • 95 Theses
  • printing press
  • sola fide
  • sola gratia
  • sola scriptura
  • sacraments
  • Diet of Worms
  • ​Frederick III the Wise, Elector of Saxony
  • German Bible
  • Albert, Duke of Prussia
  • spread of Lutheranism
  • Thomas Müntzer
  • German Peasants Revolt
  • Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants
  • Philip Melanchthon
  • Augsburg Confession
  • Katharina von Bora
  • Franz von Sickingen
  • Argula von Grumbach
  • On the Jews and Their Lies
  • Peace of Augsburg
  • cuius regio, eius religio

Calvinism

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Calvin of Calvin and Hobbes fame is named for the French theologian.
Picture
  • Swiss Reformation
  • Ulrich Zwingli
  • John Calvin
  • ​Calvinism
  • Affair of the Placards
  • Institutes of the Christian Religion
  • Genevan Consistory
  • providence
  • predestination
  • the Elect
  • Huguenots in France
  • ​Admiral Gaspard de Coligny
  • Henry of Navarre
  • Reformed Church in the Netherlands
  • ​Beeldenstorm
  • Presbyterian Church in Scotland
  • John Knox
  • Puritan Church in England
Picture
Presbyterian leader John Knox was the minister of St. Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Anglicanism

Picture
Henry VIII and his six wives: divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived.
  • Henry VIII
  • annulment
  • Catherine of Aragon
  • Anglicanism
  • Thomas Cranmer
  • Book of Common Prayer
  • Thomas Cromwell
  • Act of Supremacy (1534)
  • Six Articles
  • Anne Askew
  • Edward VI
  • Edward Seymour
  • John Dudley
  • "Bloody" Mary I
  • Elizabeth I
  • English Religious Settlement
  • Acts of Supremacy (1558)
  • Act of Uniformity
  • Hampton Court Conference
Picture
Picture

Anabaptists

Picture
The burning of a 16th-century Dutch Anabaptist, Anneken Hendriks, who was charged by the Spanish Inquisition with heresy.

  • Anabaptism
  • baptism of adult believers
  • separation of church and state
  • pacifism
  • apocalyptic millennialism
  • Thomas Müntzer
  • Münster Rebellion
  • Jakob Hutter and Hutterites
  • John of Leiden
  • Menno Simons and Mennonites
  • Jacob Amman and Amish 
The Protestant Reformation Quizlet

The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation

Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the Catholic Church from 1450 to 1648.​
Picture
Interior of Saint Peter's Basilica by Giovanni Paolo Panini (1731)
Picture
Jesuits at the court of the Mughal emperor of India, c. 1605
  • The Catholic Reformation, exemplified by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent, revived the church but cemented division within Christianity.
  • Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation
  • Pope Paul III
  • Council of Trent (1545–1563)
  • Roman Inquisition
  • Pope Paul IV
  • Index of Forbidden Books
  • Jewish ghettos
  • Baroque art
  • Ignatius of Loyola
  • Jesuits
  • Francis Xavier
  • ​Robert de Nobili
  • Teresa of Avila
  • Carmelite Order
  • Angela Merici
  • Ursuline Order
  • witch-hunts
Article: www.thecollector.com/european-witch-hunting/European Witch-Hunting (A Brief History)
Picture

Mannerism and Baroque Art

Objective: Explain how and why artistic expression changed from 1450 to 1648.
  • Mannerist and Baroque artists employed distortion, drama, and illusion in their work. Monarchies, city-states, and the church commissioned these works as a means of promoting their own stature and power.
MANNERISM
  • ​Pontormo (Descent from the Cross)
  • Parmigianino (Madonna with the Long Neck)
  • Tintoretto (Last Supper)
  • Sofonisba Anguissola (Lucia, Minerva, and Europa Playing Chess) 
  • ​El Greco (View of Toledo, Fifth Seal)
BAROQUE
  • Gian Bernini (Ecstasy of Saint Theresa)
  • Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
  • ​Christopher Wren
  • St. Paul's Cathedral
  • Palace of Versailles, France
  • Palace of Charlottenburg, Germany
  • Les Invalides, France
  • Caravaggio (Taking of Christ, Salome with Head of John the Baptist, David with Head of Goliath)
  • Artemisia Gentileschi (Judith Slaying Holofernes)
  • Peter Paul Reubens (Marie de' Medici Cycle)
  • Nicolas Poussin (Ashes of Phokion)
  • Johann Sebastian Bach (Brandenburg Concertos)
  • George Frideric Handel (Messiah)
  • Antonio Vivaldi (Four Seasons)
  • Diego Velasquez (Las Meninas)
Baroque Spotify Playlist
The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation Quizlet
The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation, Mannerism, and Baroque Art

The Wars of Religion

Objectives: 
  1. Explain how matters of religion influenced and were influenced by political factors from 1450 to 1648.
  2. ​Explain how the religious, political, and cultural developments of the 16th and 17th centuries affected European society from 1450 to 1648.
Picture
The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants (1572). It was the climax of the French Wars of Religion, which were brought to an end by the Edict of Nantes (1598).
  • Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe. 

  • Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications for challenging state authority. 

  • Issues of religious reform exacerbated conflicts between the monarchy and the nobility, as in the French wars of religion.
    ​
  • States exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests.
    ​
  • A few states, such as France with the Edict of Nantes, allowed religious pluralism in order to maintain domestic peace.
    ​
  • Habsburg rulers confronted an expanded Ottoman Empire while attempting unsuccessfully to restore Catholic unity across Europe.
    ​
  • ​The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which marked the effective end of the medieval ideal of universal Christendom, accelerated the decline of the Holy Roman Empire by granting princes, bishops, and other local leaders control over religion.

Germany

  • ​Schmalkaldic League
  • Schmalkaldic War
  • Peace of Augsburg
  • Cuius regio, eius religio ​

The Netherlands

  • ​Duke of Alba
  • Council of Blood
  • William the Silent of Orange
  • Dutch Revolt
  • Eighty Years' War
  • Union of Utrecht
  • Spanish Armada
  • Twelve Years' Truce
  • Peace of Westphalia
​

France

  • ​French Wars of Religion
  • Catherine de’Medici
  • Francis II
  • Charles IX
  • Henry III
  • Massacre at Vassy
  • St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
  • War of Three Henrys
  • ​Henry of Guise
  • Henry of Navarre aka Henry IV 
  • Bourbon dynasty
  • Edict of Nantes
  • Edict of Fontainebleau

The Thirty Years' War

Picture
The Lion of the North: Gustavus Adolphus depicted at the turning point of the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) against the forces of Count Tilly.
Bohemian Phase
  • Protestant Union
  • Catholic League
  • Defenestration of Prague
  • Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II
  • battle of White Mountain
  • Count Tilly
 
Danish and Swedish Phases
  • Christian IV of Denmark
  • Albrecht von Wallenstein
  • Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
  • battle of Breitenfeld
  • battle of Lützen
 
French Phase
  • Cardinal Richelieu
  • battle of Rocroi
  • Catalan Revolt
  • Peace of Westphalia
  • Treaty of Pyrenees
Picture
Picture
The Hanging from The Miseries of War by Jacques Callot (1633)

The Peace of Westphalia

Picture
Picture
The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (1648) ​by Gerard ter Borch
  • ended the Thirty Years' War and Dutch Revolt
  • Westphalian sovereign states
  • international law
  • balance of power
  • noninterference in domestic affairs
  • independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland
  • set precedent for Congress of Vienna and Paris Peace Conference

Minority Religions

Picture
Sultan Mehmed II allowed Orthodoxy to remain active after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Picture
​Religious Tolerance
  • Warsaw Confederation Act
  • Edict of Nantes
  • Dutch religious tolerance

​
Paganism
  • Christianization of the Sami
  • Northern Crusades
  • Teutonic Knights of Prussia
  • Baltic Pagans
 
​
Judaism
  • Ashkenazic Jews
  • Yiddish
  • Sephardic Jews
  • conversos
  • pogroms
 

Orthodoxy
  • Russian Orthodox Church
  • Third Rome
  • Greek Orthodox Rum Millet
 

Islam
  • Balkan Muslims of Ottoman Empire - Albanians, Bosniaks, and Pomaks
The Wars of Religion and Minority Religions
Wars of Religion in the 1500s, the Thirty Years' War, and Minority Religions
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  • acc. PHILLIPS
  • America
    • Introduction
      • Course Overview
      • Policies
      • Essential Documents
    • 1492-1754
      • Colonization
    • 1754-1848
      • Revolution
      • Constitution
      • Expansion
    • 1848-1898
      • The Civil War
      • The Gilded Age
    • 1898-1945
      • The American Empire
      • The Great Depression
      • The Second World War
    • 1945-1991
      • The Early Cold War
      • The Great Society
      • The Late Cold War
    • 1991-Today
      • The Culture Wars
      • The War on Terror
  • Europe
    • Introduction
    • 1200-1450
    • 1450-1648
      • Renaissance
      • Reformation
      • Exploration
      • Links
      • Assignments
      • Videos
        • John Green Videos
        • Tom Richey Videos
        • Rick Steves Videos
        • Assorted Videos
      • Slideshows
    • 1648-1815
      • Sovereignty
      • Commerce
      • Reason
      • Revolution
      • Links
      • Readings and Assignments
      • Videos
        • John Green Videos
        • Tom Richey Videos
        • Assorted Videos
      • Slideshows
    • 1815-1914
      • Industry
      • Ideology
      • Empire
      • Modernity
      • Links
      • Readings and Assignments
      • Videos
        • John Green Videos
        • Tom Richey Videos
        • Assorted Videos
      • Slideshows
    • 1914-Today
      • WWI
      • WWII
      • Cold War
      • EU
      • Links
      • Assignments and Readings
      • Videos
        • John Green Videos
        • Tom Richey Videos
        • Assorted Videos
      • Slideshows
  • World
    • Ancient
    • Modern
      • Introduction
        • Course Overview
        • Policies
        • Essential Documents
        • Exam
      • 1200-1450
        • Asia
        • Africa
        • Europe
        • Americas
        • Trade
      • 1450-1750
        • Discovery
        • Maritime Empires
        • Land Empires
      • 1750-1900
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      • 1900-Today
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        • Postwar World
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  • Research
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