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  • acc. PHILLIPS
  • America
    • I: Early America
      • Course Info
      • 1492-1763
      • 1763-1783
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      • 1789-1815
      • 1815-1849
      • 1850-1865
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Reformation,
c. 1450-1648

Differing conceptions of salvation 
and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the heart of the conflicts
among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the Anabaptists, ​and the Catholic Church. 
​
Picture

Reformation,
c. 1450-1648

Late medieval reform movements in the church - including lay piety, mysticism, and Christian humanism -  created a momentum that propelled a new generation of 16th-century reformers, such as Erasmus and Martin Luther. After 1517, when Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing ecclesiastical abuses and the doctrines that led to them, Christianity fragmented, even though religious uniformity remained the ideal. Some states, such as Spain and Portugal, which had recently expelled Muslims and Jews, held fast to this ideal. Others did not, notably the Netherlands and lands under Ottoman control, which accepted Jewish refugees.
 
In central Europe, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) permitted each state of the Holy Roman Empire to be either Catholic or Lutheran at the option of the prince. By the late 16th century, northern European countries were generally Protestant and Mediterranean countries generally Catholic. To re-establish order after a period of religious warfare, France introduced limited toleration of the minority Calvinists within a Catholic kingdom (Edict of Nantes, 1598; revoked in 1685). Jews remained a marginalized minority wherever they lived.
 
Differing conceptions of salvation and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the heart of the conflicts among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the Anabaptists, and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church affirmed its traditional theology at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), ruling out any reconciliation with the Protestants and inspiring the resurgence of Catholicism in the 17th century. Religious conflicts merged with and exacerbated long-standing political tensions between the monarchies and nobility across Europe, dramatically escalating these conflicts as they spread from the Holy Roman Empire to France, the Netherlands, and England. Economic issues such as the power to tax and control ecclesiastical resources further heightened these clashes.
 
All three motivations—religious, political, and economic—contributed to the brutal and destructive Thirty Years’ War, which was ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The treaty established a new balance of power with a weakened Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia also added Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as an accepted religion in the Holy Roman Empire, ensuring the permanence of European religious pluralism. However, pluralism did not mean religious freedom; the prince or ruler still controlled the religion of the state, and few were tolerant of dissenters.
​

Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf

The Church Before the Reformation

Picture
Main facade of Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome
  • Purgatory
  • Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521)
  • Johann Tetzel
  • indulgences
  • St. Peter’s Basilica
  • nepotism
  • simony
  • pluralism
  • absenteeism
  • Pope Alexander VI (r. 1493–1503) aka Rodrigo Borgia
  • Cesare Borgia
  • Christian humanism
  • Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (Praise of Folly, 1511)
  • Thomas More (Utopia , 1516)

Alchemy and Astrology

  • Gerolamo Cardano
  • John Dee
  • Nostradamus (Prophecies, 1555)
Picture
Nostradamus was a French seer who published prophecies that have since become famous.  He's been credited with predicting the Great Fire of London, the rise of Napoleon and Adolf Hitler, and 9/11.
Latin Christendom Quizlet
The Church Before the Reformation, Alchemy, and Astrology

Lutheranism

Picture
The burning of Little Jack (Jacklein) Rohrbach, a leader of the peasants during the German Peasants' Revolt.
  • Martin Luther
  • Wittenberg
  • 95 Theses (1517)
  • salvation by faith alone
  • sacraments
  • Diet of Worms (1521)
  • German Bible (1522)
  • Frederick III the Wise, Elector of Saxony
  • Albert, Duke of Prussia
  • Spread of Lutheranism
  • Thomas Müntzer
  • German Peasants' Revolt
  • Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants
  • Philip Melanchthon (Augsburg Confession, 1530)
  • On the Jews and Their Lies (1543)
  • Peace of Augsburg (1555) 
  • Cuius regio, eius religio

Calvinism

Picture
Calvin of Calvin and Hobbes fame is named for the French theologian.
  • Ulrich Zwingli
  • John Calvin
  • Affair of the Placards (1534)
  • Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
  • Genevan Consistory
  • providence
  • predestination
  • salvation of the Elect
  • Huguenots in France
  • Reformed Church in the Netherlands
  • Presbyterian Church in Scotland
  • John Knox
  • Puritan Church in England
  • Admiral Gaspard de Coligny
  • Henry of Navarre

Anglicanism

Picture
Henry VIII and his six wives: divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived.
  • Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547)
  • annulment
  • Catherine of Aragon
  • Anglican Church/Church of England
  • Thomas Cranmer (Book of Common Prayer)
  • Thomas Cromwell
  • Act of Supremacy (1534)
  • Edward VI (r. 1547–1553)
  • Edward Seymour
  • John Dudley
  • "Bloody" Mary I (r. 1553–1558)
  • Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603)
  • English Religious Settlement
  • Acts of Supremacy (1558)
  • Act of Uniformity (1558)
  • Hampton Court Conference (1604)
Picture

Anabaptists

Picture
The burning of a 16th-century Dutch Anabaptist, Anneken Hendriks, who was charged by the Spanish Inquisition with heresy.

  • baptism of adult believers
  • separation of church and state
  • pacifism
  • apocalyptic millennialism
  • Thomas Müntzer
  • Münster Rebellion
  • Jakob Hutter and Hutterites
  • John of Leiden
  • Menno Simons and Mennonites
  • Jacob Amman and Amish 
The Protestant Reformation Quizlet
Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and Anabaptists

The Catholic (or Counter-)Reformation

Picture
Jesuits at the court of the Mughal emperor of India, c. 1605
  • Pope Paul III (r. 1534–1549)
  • Council of Trent (1545–1563)
  • Roman Inquisition (est. 1542)
  • Pope Paul IV (r. 1555–1559)
  • Index of Forbidden Books
  • Jewish ghettos
  • Baroque art
  • Ignatius Loyola and the Society of Jesus (1540)
  • Francis Xavier
  • Teresa of Avila and the Carmelite Order
  • Angela Merici and the Ursuline Order

Mannerism and Baroque Art

MANNERISM
  • ​Pontormo (Descent from the Cross)
  • Parmigianino (Madonna with the Long Neck)
  • Tintoretto (Last Supper)
  • Sofonisba Anguissola (Lucia, Minerva, and Europa Playing Chess) 
  • ​El Greco (View of Toledo, Fifth Seal)
BAROQUE
  • Gian Bernini (Ecstasy of Saint Theresa)
  • Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
  • St. Paul's Cathedral, London by Christopher Wren
  • Palace of Versailles, France
  • Palace of Charlottenburg, Germany
  • Les Invalides, France
  • Caravaggio (Taking of Christ, Salome with Head of John the Baptist, David with Head of Goliath)
  • Artemisia Gentileschi (Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1614–1620)
  • Peter Paul Reubens (Marie de' Medici Cycle, 1622–1624)
  • Nicolas Poussin (Ashes of Phokion, 1648)
  • Johann Sebastian Bach (Brandenburg Concertos)
  • George Frideric Handel (Messiah)
  • Antonio Vivaldi (Four Seasons)
  • Diego Velasquez (Las Meninas)
Baroque Spotify Playlist
The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation Quizlet
The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation, Mannerism, and Baroque Art

Wars of Religion in the 1500s

Picture
The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants (1572). It was the climax of the French Wars of Religion, which were brought to an end by the Edict of Nantes (1598).
GERMANY
  • Schmalkaldic League (1531)
  • Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547)
  • Peace of Augsburg (1555)
  • Cuius regio, eius religio ​
THE NETHERLANDS
  • Duke of Alba
  • Council of Blood
  • William the Silent of Orange
  • Dutch Revolt
  • Eighty Years' War
  • The Union of Utrecht (1579)
  • Spanish Armada (1588)
  • Dutch de facto independence (1609)
  • Peace of Westphalia (1648)
​
FRANCE
  • Catherine de’Medici
  • Francis II (r. 1559–1560)
  • Charles IX (r. 1560–1574)
  • Henry III (r. 1574–1589)
  • Massacre at Vassy (1562)
  • St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)
  • War of Three Henrys (1587–1589)
  • Henry III
  • Henry of Guise
  • Henry of Navarre aka Henry IV (r. 1589–1610)
  • Bourbon dynasty
  • Edict of Nantes (1598)

The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648

Picture
The Lion of the North: Gustavus Adolphus depicted at the turning point of the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) against the forces of Count Tilly.
Bohemian Phase
  • Protestant Union (1608)
  • Catholic League (1609)
  • Defenestration of Prague (1618)
  • Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II
  • battle of White Mountain (1620)
  • Count Tilly
 
Danish and Swedish Phases
  • Christian IV of Denmark
  • Albrecht von Wallenstein
  • Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
  • battle of Breitenfeld (1631)
  • battle of Lützen (1632)
 
French Phase
  • Cardinal Richelieu
  • battle of Rocroi (1643)
  • Catalan Revolt
  • Peace of Westphalia (1648)
  • Treaty of Pyrenees (1659)

Minority Religions

Picture
Sultan Mehmed II allowed Orthodoxy to remain active after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
​Religious Tolerance
  • Warsaw Confederation Act (1573)
  • Edict of Nantes (1598)
  • Dutch religious tolerance

​
Paganism
  • Christianization of the Scandinavian Sami people
  • Northern Crusades (1229–1413)
  • Teutonic Knights of Prussia
  • Baltic Pagans
 
​
Judaism
  • Ashkenazic Jews
  • Yiddish
  • Sephardic Jews
  • conversos
 

Orthodoxy
  • Russian Orthodox Church
  • Third Rome
  • Greek Orthodox Rum Millet of the Ottoman Empire
 

Islam
  • Balkan Muslims of Ottoman Empire - Albanians, Bosniaks, and Pomaks
The Wars of Religion and Minority Religions
Wars of Religion in the 1500s, the Thirty Years' War, and Minority Religions

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  • acc. PHILLIPS
  • America
    • I: Early America
      • Course Info
      • 1492-1763
      • 1763-1783
      • 1783-1789
      • 1789-1815
      • 1815-1849
      • 1850-1865
      • 1865-1877
    • II: Modern America
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        • The Western Frontier
        • The Gilded Age
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        • Progressivism
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      • 1920-1941
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