Differing conceptions of salvation |
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Reformation,
c. 1450-1648
Late medieval reform movements in the church - including lay piety, mysticism, and Christian humanism - created a momentum that propelled a new generation of 16th-century reformers, such as Erasmus and Martin Luther. After 1517, when Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing ecclesiastical abuses and the doctrines that led to them, Christianity fragmented, even though religious uniformity remained the ideal. Some states, such as Spain and Portugal, which had recently expelled Muslims and Jews, held fast to this ideal. Others did not, notably the Netherlands and lands under Ottoman control, which accepted Jewish refugees.
In central Europe, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) permitted each state of the Holy Roman Empire to be either Catholic or Lutheran at the option of the prince. By the late 16th century, northern European countries were generally Protestant and Mediterranean countries generally Catholic. To re-establish order after a period of religious warfare, France introduced limited toleration of the minority Calvinists within a Catholic kingdom (Edict of Nantes, 1598; revoked in 1685). Jews remained a marginalized minority wherever they lived.
Differing conceptions of salvation and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the heart of the conflicts among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the Anabaptists, and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church affirmed its traditional theology at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), ruling out any reconciliation with the Protestants and inspiring the resurgence of Catholicism in the 17th century. Religious conflicts merged with and exacerbated long-standing political tensions between the monarchies and nobility across Europe, dramatically escalating these conflicts as they spread from the Holy Roman Empire to France, the Netherlands, and England. Economic issues such as the power to tax and control ecclesiastical resources further heightened these clashes.
All three motivations—religious, political, and economic—contributed to the brutal and destructive Thirty Years’ War, which was ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The treaty established a new balance of power with a weakened Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia also added Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as an accepted religion in the Holy Roman Empire, ensuring the permanence of European religious pluralism. However, pluralism did not mean religious freedom; the prince or ruler still controlled the religion of the state, and few were tolerant of dissenters.
Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf
In central Europe, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) permitted each state of the Holy Roman Empire to be either Catholic or Lutheran at the option of the prince. By the late 16th century, northern European countries were generally Protestant and Mediterranean countries generally Catholic. To re-establish order after a period of religious warfare, France introduced limited toleration of the minority Calvinists within a Catholic kingdom (Edict of Nantes, 1598; revoked in 1685). Jews remained a marginalized minority wherever they lived.
Differing conceptions of salvation and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the heart of the conflicts among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the Anabaptists, and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church affirmed its traditional theology at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), ruling out any reconciliation with the Protestants and inspiring the resurgence of Catholicism in the 17th century. Religious conflicts merged with and exacerbated long-standing political tensions between the monarchies and nobility across Europe, dramatically escalating these conflicts as they spread from the Holy Roman Empire to France, the Netherlands, and England. Economic issues such as the power to tax and control ecclesiastical resources further heightened these clashes.
All three motivations—religious, political, and economic—contributed to the brutal and destructive Thirty Years’ War, which was ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The treaty established a new balance of power with a weakened Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia also added Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as an accepted religion in the Holy Roman Empire, ensuring the permanence of European religious pluralism. However, pluralism did not mean religious freedom; the prince or ruler still controlled the religion of the state, and few were tolerant of dissenters.
Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf
The Church Before the Reformation
Main facade of Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome
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Alchemy and Astrology
Nostradamus was a French seer who published prophecies that have since become famous. He's been credited with predicting the Great Fire of London, the rise of Napoleon and Adolf Hitler, and 9/11.
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Latin Christendom Quizlet
The Church Before the Reformation, Alchemy, and Astrology
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Lutheranism
The burning of Little Jack (Jacklein) Rohrbach, a leader of the peasants during the German Peasants' Revolt.
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Calvinism
Anglicanism
Henry VIII and his six wives: divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived.
Anabaptists
The burning of a 16th-century Dutch Anabaptist, Anneken Hendriks, who was charged by the Spanish Inquisition with heresy.
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The Protestant Reformation Quizlet
Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and Anabaptists
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The Catholic (or Counter-)Reformation
Jesuits at the court of the Mughal emperor of India, c. 1605
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Mannerism and Baroque Art
BAROQUE
- Gian Bernini (Ecstasy of Saint Theresa)
- Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- St. Paul's Cathedral, London by Christopher Wren
- Palace of Versailles, France
- Palace of Charlottenburg, Germany
- Les Invalides, France
- Caravaggio (Taking of Christ, Salome with Head of John the Baptist, David with Head of Goliath)
- Artemisia Gentileschi (Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1614–1620)
- Peter Paul Reubens (Marie de' Medici Cycle, 1622–1624)
- Nicolas Poussin (Ashes of Phokion, 1648)
- Johann Sebastian Bach (Brandenburg Concertos)
- George Frideric Handel (Messiah)
- Antonio Vivaldi (Four Seasons)
- Diego Velasquez (Las Meninas)
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The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation Quizlet
The Catholic (or Counter-) Reformation, Mannerism, and Baroque Art
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Wars of Religion in the 1500s
The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants (1572). It was the climax of the French Wars of Religion, which were brought to an end by the Edict of Nantes (1598).
The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648
The Lion of the North: Gustavus Adolphus depicted at the turning point of the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) against the forces of Count Tilly.
Bohemian Phase
Danish and Swedish Phases
French Phase
- Protestant Union (1608)
- Catholic League (1609)
- Defenestration of Prague (1618)
- Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II
- battle of White Mountain (1620)
- Count Tilly
Danish and Swedish Phases
- Christian IV of Denmark
- Albrecht von Wallenstein
- Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
- battle of Breitenfeld (1631)
- battle of Lützen (1632)
French Phase
Minority Religions
Sultan Mehmed II allowed Orthodoxy to remain active after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
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The Wars of Religion and Minority Religions
Wars of Religion in the 1500s, the Thirty Years' War, and Minority Religions
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