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Ideology,
​c. 1815-1914 CE

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Eugene Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People celebrates the July Revolution of 1830 in France.

Ideology,

c. 1815-1914 CE

Contents

 
A. The Political Spectrum
  1. Conservatism
  2. Classical Liberalism
  3. Radicalism and Social Liberalism
  4. Socialism and Communism
  5. Anarchism

B. The Concert of Europe
  1. The Congress System
  2. Early Nationalist Movements
  3. July Revolution of 1830
  4. 1848 Revolutions

C. Mass Politics
The French and industrial revolutions triggered dramatic political and social consequences and new theories to deal with them. The ideologies engendered by these 19th-century revolutions—conservatism, liberalism, socialism, nationalism, and even romanticism— provided their adherents with coherent views of the world and differing blueprints for change. The responses to socioeconomic changes reached a culmination in the revolutions of 1848, but the failure of these uprisings left the issues raised by the economic, political, and social transformations unresolved well into the 20th century.

Following a quarter-century of revolutionary upheaval and war spurred by Napoleon’s imperial ambitions, the Great Powers met in Vienna in 1814–1815 to re-establish a workable balance of power and suppress liberal and nationalist movements for change. Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich led the way in creating an informal security arrangement to resolve international disputes and stem revolution through common action among the Great Powers. Nonetheless, revolutions aimed at liberalization of the political system and national self-determination defined the period from 1815 to 1848.
 
The revolutions that swept Europe in 1848 were triggered by poor economic conditions, frustration at the slow pace of political change, and unfulfilled nationalist aspirations. At first, revolutionary forces succeeded in establishing regimes dedicated to change or to gaining independence from great-power domination. However, conservative forces, which still controlled the military and bureaucracy, reasserted control.
Although the revolutions of 1848 were, as George Macaulay Trevelyan quipped, a “turning point at which modern history failed to turn,” they helped usher in a new type of European politics and diplomacy. ​
Although the revolutions of 1848 were, as George Macaulay Trevelyan quipped, a “turning point at which modern history failed to turn,” they helped usher in a new type of European politics and diplomacy. Conservative leaders, exemplified by Napoleon III of France, used popular nationalism to advance state power and authoritarian rule.

In the second half of the 19th century, labor leaders in many countries created unions and syndicates to provide the working classes with a collective voice, and these organizations used collective action such as strikes and movements for men’s universal suffrage to reinforce their demands. Feminists and suffragists petitioned and staged public protests to press their demands for similar rights for women. The international movements for socialism, labor, and women’s rights were important examples of a trend toward international cooperation in a variety of causes, including antislavery and peace movements. Finally, political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for advocating reform or reacting to changing conditions in the political arena.
 
Nationalism acted as one of the most powerful engines of political change, inspiring revolutions as well as campaigns by states for national unity or a higher degree of centralization. Early nationalism emphasized shared historical and cultural experiences that often threatened traditional elites. Over the course of the 19th century, leaders recognized the need to promote national unity through economic development and expanding state functions to meet the challenges posed by industry.


Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf

The Political Spectrum

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Objective: ​Explain how the European political order was maintained and challenged from 1815 to 1914.
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  • Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. 

  • Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance.

  • Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women.

  • Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social policies in response to the challenges of industrialization. 
    ​
  • Socialists called for the redistribution of society’s resources and wealth and evolved from a utopian to a Marxist scientific critique of capitalism.

  • Marx’s scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism and a deterministic analysis of society and historical evolution.

  • Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation.
  • political spectrum
  • left-right political divide
  • autocracy
  • conservatism
  • liberalism
  • radicalism
  • social liberalism
  • socialism
  • communism
  • anarchism 

Conservatism

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The Nine Sovereigns at Windsor for the funeral of King Edward VII (1910). Standing, from left to right: King Haakon VII of Norway, Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria, King Manuel II of Portugal, Kaiser Wilhelm II of the German Empire, King George I of Greece and King Albert I of Belgium. Seated, from left to right: King Alfonso XIII of Spain, King-Emperor George V of the United Kingdom and King Frederick VIII of Denmark. This is probably the only photograph of nine reigning kings ever taken. Colorized by Marina Amaral.
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Edmund Burke is considered to be the Father of Conservatism.
CONSERVATISM
  • Ancien Régime
  • reactionism
  • Edmund Burke (Reflections on the French Revolution)
  • Joseph de Maistre (Considerations on France)
  • François-René de Chateaubriand (Genius of Christianity)
  • Klemens von Metternich
  • Congress of Vienna​
  • Concert of Europe
  • Holy Alliance
  • principle of legitimacy​​

Classical Liberalism

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LIBERALISM
  • classical liberalism
  • popular sovereignty
  • constitutions
  • limited government
  • republicanism
  • secularism
  • civil liberties
  • laissez-faire capitalism​
  • limited suffrage
  • Utilitarianism
  • Jeremy Bentham (Principles of Morals and Legislation)
  • Corn Laws
  • Anti-Corn Law League
  • John Stuart Mill (On Liberty) 
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Radicalism and Social Liberalism

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Peterloo Massacre, 1819
Article: The Peterloo Massacre: what did it achieve?
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Article: Spies, lies and fake news - England's 'last revolution'
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Critics of the People’s Budget of 1911 claimed its social benefits weren't social liberalism but socialism that would ruin the British economy.
RADICALISM and SOCIAL LIBERALISM
  • ​Radicalism
  • Scottish Radical War
  • Luddites
  • Peterloo Massacre
  • Six Acts
  • Reform Act of 1832
  • Chartist movement
  • universal male suffrage
  • John Stuart Mill (Subjection of Women)
  • British Labour Party
  • Jules Ferry 
  • ​New Liberals
  • T.H. Green
  • L.T. Hobhouse
  • J.A. Hobson
  • Henry Campbell-Bannerman
  • H.H. Asquith
  • David Lloyd George
  • People’s Budget of 1909
  • welfare state
  • social programs
  • Friedrich Naumann
  • National-Social Association
  • Émile Durkheim 

Socialism and Communism

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Socialists despised capitalism as unjust suppression of the working class masses.
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Karl Marx, the influential author of the Communist Manifesto
Article: The Communist Manifesto: Marx’s & Engels’ Call to Action
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SOCIALISM and COMMUNISM
  • Utopian Socialism
  • Henri de Saint-Simon
  • planned economy
  • Charles Fourier
  • agricultural collective
  • Étienne Cabet
  • communes
  • Louis Blanc
  • national workshops
  • Robert Owen
  • New Lanark, Scotland
  • New Harmony, Indiana
  • Marxist Socialism, or Communism
  • command economy
  • Friedrich Engels (Condition of the Working Class in England)
  • Karl Marx (Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital)
  • Hegelian dialectic
  • First International
  • Second International​
  • Communards
  • Paris Commune
  • ​revisionism
  • Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)
  • August Bebel
  • ​​Rosa Luxemburg
  • Clara Zetkin
  • Spartacus League 
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For two months in 1871, far-left revolutionaries seized control of Paris during Europe's first communist revolution.
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"The [Paris] Commune arrested by Ignorance and Reaction", 1871
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street fighting during the Paris Commune uprising of 1871

Anarchism

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ANARCHISM
  • Pierre Joseph Proudhon (What Is Property?)
  • Mikhail Bakunin
  • syndicalism
  • Pyotr Kropotkin
  • propaganda of the deed
  • anarchist assassinations
  • Georges Sorel
Article: This 19th century British commune couldn’t be bothered with revolution
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The Political Spectrum Quizlet (comprehensive)
The Political Spectrum Quizlet (abridged)

The Concert of Europe

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Objectives: ​
  1. Explain how the European political order was maintained and challenged from 1815 to 1914.
  2. Explain how the development and spread of nationalism affected Europe from 1815 to 1914.
  3. ​​​Explain how and why various groups reacted against the existing order from 1815 to 1914.
Reform and Revolution 1815-1848: Crash Course European History #25
​In the aftermath of the revolutions and upheaval in 18th and early 19th century Europe, there was a hunger for reform across the continent. Reformers like Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and Auguste Comte proposed radical new ideas, and at the same time, regular people began to stand up and ask for greater equality, and a louder voice in how they were governed. Results were mixed, but a lot of the ideas that emerged during this time are still echoing in our world today.
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The Congress System

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  • Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible.

  • The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.

  • Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions.
    ​
  • Conservatives reestablished control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities. 
  • Klemens von Metternich
  • Congress of Vienna
  • principle of legitimacy
  • balance of power
  • Holy Alliance
  • Quadruple Alliance
  • Concert of Europe​
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 1879 illustration depicting the arrest of members of Carbonari, a secret society dedicated to expelling Austrian forces from Italy and uniting the Italian peninsula, especially during the failed Revolution of 1820.

Early Nationalist Movements

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Article: How national stereotypes killed the European dream of 19th century philosophers
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Article: 12 Illustrative Portraits of Political Geography in Europe
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  • Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation in a variety of ways, including romantic idealism, liberal reform, political unification, racialism with a concomitant anti-Semitism, and chauvinism justifying national aggrandizement. 
  • nationalism
  • ethnic nation-states
  • jus sanguinis
  • ​jus soli
  • G.W. Friedrich Hegel
  • Zeitgeist
  • J.G. Herder
  • J.G. Fichte
  • Volksgeist
  • Grimm Brothers
  • Wartburg Festival
  • Burschenschaften
  • Carlsbad Decrees
  • Carbonari
  • Giuseppe Mazzini
  • Young Italy
  • Young Germany
  • Young Poland
  • Young Turks
  • Young Europe
  • Pan-Slavism
  • Greek War of Independence
  • Lord Byron
  • Otto
  • ​Act of Union (1800)
  • Irish Home Rule
  • Daniel O'Connell
  • Charles Stewart Parnell
  • Carlist Wars
  • Basque independence movement
  • Renaixença
  • ​Peterloo Massacre
  • ​Revolutions of 1820
  • Ferdinand VII
  • Joao VI
  • Decembrist Revolt ​
  • ​Nicholas I

July Revolution of 1830

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The Episode of the September Days 1830 (on the Grand Place of Brussels) by Égide Charles Gustave Wappers (1835) depicts the Belgian Revolution. ​Men and women with a tattered black, yellow, and red tricolour flag form a mound around a street post in the streets of Brussels.
  • In the first half of the 19th century, revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo. 
  • Louis XVIII
  • ​Charles X
  • Charter of 1814
  • Saint-Cloud Ordinances
  • ​July Revolution of 1830
  • Three Glorious Days
  • Louis-Philippe
  • Orléanists
  • Belgian Revolution
  • Polish November Uprising​
Article: Let Them Eat Bread: The Theft That Helped Inspire 'Les Miserables'
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1848 Revolutions

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Revolutions of 1848: Crash Course European History #26
​In 1848, Europe experienced a wave of revolutions. This week, we're learning about what the people wanted from the revolutions, who was involved, and how many of those goals were accomplished. We'll look at revolutions in the Austrian Empire, Hungary, Italy, the German States, and the region formerly known as Poland.
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Mob burning carriages at King Louis-Philippe's royal residence the Château d'Eu, February 24, 1848.
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fighting in Berlin during the 1848 Revolutions
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Article: The Revolutions of 1848: A Wave of Anti-Monarchism Sweeps Europe
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  • The revolutions of 1848, triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, challenged conservative politicians and governments and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe. 
  • Hungry ’40s
  • Springtime of Nations
  • Alphonse de Lamartine
  • Second French Republic
  • universal male suffrage
  • Louis Blanc
  • national workshops
  • Party of Order
  • June Days
  • Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte
  • national plebiscite
  • Lajos Kossuth
  • Franz Josef
  • Friedrich Wilhelm IV
  • Frankfurt Assembly
  • Forty-Eighters
Article: European Monarchs Crushed Rebellions in the Mid-1800s — And America Benefited
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Emperor Franz Joseph leading Austrian troops against Hungarian revolutionaries
The Concert of Europe (comprehensive)
The Concert of Europe Quizlet (abridged)

Mass Politics

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Objective: ​​Explain the various movements and calls for social reform that resulted from intellectual developments from 1815 to 1914.
Modern Life: Crash Course European History #30
​So, "modern" is kind of a loaded term, but today we're going to talk about modern life in Europe, as it looked around the time the 19th century turned into the 20th. We'll look at what life was like in the rapidly growing urban centers of Europe, how developments in communication and information distribution influenced the way people saw their leaders and their neighbors, and how women began making strides toward equality in this era.
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Great Chartist Meeting, London, 1848
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The British Houses of Parliament meet in the Palace of Westminster, London. The current neo-Gothic Romantic-style building opened in 1870, and has become a symbol of democracy.
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Emile Zola's open letter to the president of France inflamed French political passions during the Dreyfus Affair (1894–1906) ​.
  • Political movements and social organizations responded to problems of industrialization.

  • Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform.

  • Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties.

  • Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions.
    ​
  • Various nongovernmental reform movements, many of them religious, assisted the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery.

  • Reformers promoted compulsory public education to advance the goals of public order, nationalism, and economic growth.
  • mass politics
  • British Reform Acts of 1832 
  • Chartist movement
  • British Reform Acts of 1867, 1884, and 1918
  • rotten boroughs
  • British Conservative Party
  • Benjamin Disraeli
  • British Liberal Party
  • William Gladstone
  • ​British Labour Party
  • Keir Hardie
  • ​French Third Republic
  • Boulanger Affair
  • Panama Canal Affair
  • Dreyfus Affair​
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British labor unrest in Liverpool, England, 1911
  • ​labor union legalization
  • strike
  • general strike
  • Russian Social Democratic Party
  • Vladimir Lenin (What Is to Be Done?)
  • Bolshevik-Menshevik split
  • Fabian Society
  • H.G. Wells
  • George Bernard Shaw
  • Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)
  • Rosa Luxembourg
  • Great Unrest​
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Women's Social and Political Union leaders Annie Kenney and Christabel Pankhurst, c. 1908
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Suffragettes fought for women's right to vote.
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Suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst is arrested outside of Buckingham Palace, 1914
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Women campaigning for the right to vote in France and Britain.
  • ​first-wave feminism
  • Flora Tristan
  • Barbara Bodichon
  • Married Women's Property Act
  • suffragettes 
  • British National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies
  • Millicent Fawcett 
  • British Women's Social and Political Union
  • Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia Pankhurst
  • Cat and Mouse Act
  • Emily Davison
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  • social question
  • John Edgar
  • temperance movement
  • Joseph Livesey
  • ​teetotalism
  • British New Poor Law
  • workhouses
  • Jabez Tunnicliff
  • William and Catherine Booth
  • Salvation Army
  • Contagious Diseases Acts
  • Josephine Butler
  • German social legislation
  • German Sickness Insurance Law
  • German Accident Insurance Law
  • German Old Age Pension Law​
  • ​Robert Raikes
  • compulsory elementary education
  • Jules Ferry Laws
Mass Politics and Reform (comprehensive)
Mass Politics and Reform Quizlet (abridged)
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  • acc. PHILLIPS
  • America
    • Introduction
      • Course Overview
      • Policies
      • Essential Documents
    • 1492-1754
      • Colonization
    • 1754-1848
      • Revolution
      • Constitution
      • Expansion
    • 1848-1898
      • The Civil War
      • The Gilded Age
    • 1898-1945
      • The American Empire
      • The Great Depression
      • The Second World War
    • 1945-1991
      • The Early Cold War
      • The Great Society
      • The Late Cold War
    • 1991-Today
      • The Culture Wars
      • The War on Terror
  • Europe
    • Introduction
    • 1200-1450
    • 1450-1648
      • Renaissance
      • Reformation
      • Exploration
      • Readings
    • 1648-1815
      • Sovereignty
      • Commerce
      • Reason
      • Revolution
      • Readings
    • 1815-1914
      • Industry
      • Ideology
      • Empire
      • Modernity
      • Readings
    • 1914-Today
      • WWI
      • WWII
      • Cold War
      • EU
      • Readings
  • World
    • Ancient
    • Modern
      • Introduction
        • Course Overview
        • Policies
        • Essential Documents
        • Exam
      • 1200-1450
        • Asia
        • Africa
        • Europe
        • Americas
        • Trade
      • 1450-1750
        • Discovery
        • Maritime Empires
        • Land Empires
      • 1750-1900
        • Revolutions
        • Industrialization
        • Imperialism
      • 1900-Today
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        • Postwar World
        • Globalization
  • Research
  • Resources
  • About
  • Contact