From Westphalia to Vienna, c. 1648-c. 1815

 Global

• Global commercial links expanded into a worldwide trade network.
• Mercantilism and the transatlantic slave-labor system maintained European control in the colonies.
• Europeans were exposed to a greater number of representations of peoples outside Europe.
• Colonial rivalry between Britain and France intensified in a series of wars on several continents.
• Enlightenment ideas influenced the American Revolution, which then influenced the French Revolution.
• The American and French Revolutions inspired the slave revolt in Haiti.
• The Napoleonic Wars disrupted trade and influenced colonies.

Commerce

• Agricultural products from the Americas and farming techniques of the Agricultural Revolution increased the food supply. The population grew.
• Migration from rural to urban areas increased.
• The putting-out system was a form of proto-industrialization.

• The European-dominated global trade network fueled a consumer economy. Art and literature reflected the values of a commercial society. Free trade and a free market challenged mercantilist trade limitations.​

Culture

• New public venues and print media increased public discourse and popularized rational and empirical thought.
• Enlightenment spawned new political and economic theories. Scientific principles were applied to resolving social problems and organizing social institutions.
• Enlightenment notions of natural religion and toleration challenged religious establishments.
• As absolute monarchs extended their power and control, philosophers challenged absolutism and inspired liberal revolts.
• The role of women in political life was debated.

• The Catholic Church's influence was attacked during the French Revolution. Civil rights were granted to Jews.
• The French Revolutionary era awoke nationalistic sentiments among European peoples.

State

• Louis XIV epitomized absolutism in France. Britain and the Dutch Republic developed constitutional states.
• Enlightenment philosophers studied the social contract, identified natural rights, and espoused egalitarianism. Increased literacy expanded public discourse.

• Dynastic, colonial, and revolutionary wars challenged the balance of power.
• Prussia, Austria, and Russia emerged as powerful states.
• Warfare centralized state power during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars and inspired nationalism both in France and French-occupied nations.
• The role and rights of women and minorities were debated during the French Revolution.

Society

• The Agricultural Revolution swelled the population and spurred urban migration.

• The literate public expanded.

• Rising life expectancy and societal prosperity changed attitudes regarding children.
• The slave trade expanded and was criticized.
• Women hosted Enlightenment salons providing venues for public discourse. Women's roles and rights were debated throughout the Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Napoleonic eras.
• Feudal social relations were attacked during the French Revolution. Many aristocrats fled France and resisted the revolution.
• Extreme measures were used to suppress counterrevolutionary activities during the Reign of Terror.

• Napoleon promoted meritocracy in the French army and empire.

Identity

• The Enlightenment questioned social inequality.
• The French Revolution and Napoleonic reforms promoted greater social equality.
• The French Revolution inspired nationalism.

Technology

• The Scientific Revolution expanded understanding of natural laws.
  
• Newtonian classical mechanics led to belief in a clockwork universe.

Sovereignty

• Theories of Absolute Monarchy
• The English Civil War
• English Constitutionalism
• The Dutch Republic
• Bourbon Dynasty of France
• Romanov Dynasty of Russia
• Hohenzollern Dynasty of Prussia
• Hapsburg Dynasty of Austria
• Partitions of Poland

Commerce

includes

• Agricultural Revolution
  
• Mercantilism
  
• Free Market Economy
  
• Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
  
• Consumer Culture
  
• Golden Age of Piracy​

Reason

• The Scientific Revolution
  
• ​​The Social Contract
• Enlightenment Philosophes
• Enlightenment Institutions
• Representations of Non-Europeans
• Natural Religion
• Rococo
• Neoclassical Art and Classical Music
• 18th Century Literature

Society

includes

• ​Population Growth
• Consumer Revolution
• 18th Century Social Structure
• 18th Century Crime and Punishment
• 18th Century Urban Life​

Revolution

includes

• Colonial Rivalry
• French Revolution
• Haitian Revolution
• Napoleonic Empire
• Congress of Vienna
• Romanticism
• German Romantic Nationalism

Links

Readings

Videos

Slideshows