The success of the Common Market inspired Europeans to work toward a closer political and economic unity, including a European executive body and Parliament. |
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The European Union, c. 1991-Today
In the post–World War II period, states in both Eastern and Western Europe increased their involvement in citizens’ economic lives. In the West this came through social welfare programs and the expansion of education, while Eastern European nations were heavily regulated in planned economies directed by the Soviet Union.
The Cold War promoted political and economic unity in Western Europe, leading to the establishment of a succession of ever-more comprehensive organizations for economic cooperation. In 1957, six countries formed the Common Market, which soon began to expand its membership to include other European states. The success of the Common Market inspired Europeans to work toward a closer political and economic unity, including a European executive body and Parliament. The founding of the European Union in 1991 at Maastricht included the agreement to establish the euro as a common currency for qualifying member states.
With the collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, the Western European democracies celebrated the triumph of their political and economic systems, and many of the former communist states sought admission into the European Union and NATO. By the late 1990s, it became evident that the transition from communism to capitalism and democracy was not as simple as it first appeared to be, with Western Europe experiencing difficulties because of economic recession and the extension of social welfare programs.
Immigration created large populations of poor and isolated minorities, which occasionally rioted because of discrimination and economic deprivation. As European governments tried to solve these problems, the apparently permanent presence of the immigrants challenged old notions of European identity.
The disruptions of two total wars, the reduction of barriers to migration within Europe because of economic integration, globalization, and the arrival of new permanent residents from outside Europe changed the everyday lives of Europeans in significant ways. For the first time, more people lived in cities than in rural communities. Economic growth—although interrupted by repeated wars and economic crises—generally increased standards of living, leisure time (despite the growing number of two-career families), educational attainment, and participation in mass cultural entertainments.
The collapse of the birth rate to below replacement levels enhanced the financial well-being of individual families even as it reduced the labor force. To support labor-force participation and encourage families, governments instituted family policies supporting child care and created large-scale guest-worker programs. Europe’s involvement in an increasingly global economy exposed its citizens to new goods, ideas, and practices. Altogether, the disruptions of war and decolonization led to new demographic patterns—a population increase followed by falling birth rates and the immigration of non-Europeans—and to uncertainties about Europeans’ cultural identity.
Even before the collapse of communism and continuing afterward, a variety of groups on both the left and right began campaigns of terror in the name of ethnic or national autonomy, or in radical opposition to free-market ideology. Other groups worked within the democratic system to achieve nationalist and xenophobic goals.
By the 1960s, the rapid industrialization of the previous century had created significant environmental problems. Environmentalists argued that the unfettered free-market economy could lead Europe to ecological disaster, and they challenged the traditional economic and political establishment with demands for sustainable development sensitive to environmental, aesthetic, and moral constraints. At the same time, a generation that had not experienced either economic depression or total war came of age and criticized existing institutions and beliefs while calling for greater political and personal freedom. These demands culminated with the 1968 youth revolts in Europe’s major cities and in challenges to institutional authority structures, especially those of universities. Feminist movements gained increased participation for women in politics, and before the end of the century, several women became heads of government or state. Women’s organizations and movements continued to advocate for other causes, such as equal pay, women’s health care issues, and increased child care subsidies.
During the second half of the century, immigrants from around the globe streamed into Europe, and by the new millennium Europeans found themselves living in multiethnic and multi-religious communities. Immigrants defied traditional expectations of integration and assimilation and expressed social values different from 20th-century Europeans. Many Europeans refused to consider the newcomers as true members of their society. In the early 21st century, Europeans continued to wrestle with issues of social justice and how to define European identity.
Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf
The Cold War promoted political and economic unity in Western Europe, leading to the establishment of a succession of ever-more comprehensive organizations for economic cooperation. In 1957, six countries formed the Common Market, which soon began to expand its membership to include other European states. The success of the Common Market inspired Europeans to work toward a closer political and economic unity, including a European executive body and Parliament. The founding of the European Union in 1991 at Maastricht included the agreement to establish the euro as a common currency for qualifying member states.
With the collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, the Western European democracies celebrated the triumph of their political and economic systems, and many of the former communist states sought admission into the European Union and NATO. By the late 1990s, it became evident that the transition from communism to capitalism and democracy was not as simple as it first appeared to be, with Western Europe experiencing difficulties because of economic recession and the extension of social welfare programs.
Immigration created large populations of poor and isolated minorities, which occasionally rioted because of discrimination and economic deprivation. As European governments tried to solve these problems, the apparently permanent presence of the immigrants challenged old notions of European identity.
The disruptions of two total wars, the reduction of barriers to migration within Europe because of economic integration, globalization, and the arrival of new permanent residents from outside Europe changed the everyday lives of Europeans in significant ways. For the first time, more people lived in cities than in rural communities. Economic growth—although interrupted by repeated wars and economic crises—generally increased standards of living, leisure time (despite the growing number of two-career families), educational attainment, and participation in mass cultural entertainments.
The collapse of the birth rate to below replacement levels enhanced the financial well-being of individual families even as it reduced the labor force. To support labor-force participation and encourage families, governments instituted family policies supporting child care and created large-scale guest-worker programs. Europe’s involvement in an increasingly global economy exposed its citizens to new goods, ideas, and practices. Altogether, the disruptions of war and decolonization led to new demographic patterns—a population increase followed by falling birth rates and the immigration of non-Europeans—and to uncertainties about Europeans’ cultural identity.
Even before the collapse of communism and continuing afterward, a variety of groups on both the left and right began campaigns of terror in the name of ethnic or national autonomy, or in radical opposition to free-market ideology. Other groups worked within the democratic system to achieve nationalist and xenophobic goals.
By the 1960s, the rapid industrialization of the previous century had created significant environmental problems. Environmentalists argued that the unfettered free-market economy could lead Europe to ecological disaster, and they challenged the traditional economic and political establishment with demands for sustainable development sensitive to environmental, aesthetic, and moral constraints. At the same time, a generation that had not experienced either economic depression or total war came of age and criticized existing institutions and beliefs while calling for greater political and personal freedom. These demands culminated with the 1968 youth revolts in Europe’s major cities and in challenges to institutional authority structures, especially those of universities. Feminist movements gained increased participation for women in politics, and before the end of the century, several women became heads of government or state. Women’s organizations and movements continued to advocate for other causes, such as equal pay, women’s health care issues, and increased child care subsidies.
During the second half of the century, immigrants from around the globe streamed into Europe, and by the new millennium Europeans found themselves living in multiethnic and multi-religious communities. Immigrants defied traditional expectations of integration and assimilation and expressed social values different from 20th-century Europeans. Many Europeans refused to consider the newcomers as true members of their society. In the early 21st century, Europeans continued to wrestle with issues of social justice and how to define European identity.
Source: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-european-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf
European Union
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The Eurozone
Austerity measures adopted during the 2009 European Debt Crisis drew widespread protests. The recently adopted common euro currency was imperiled by sovereign debt crises in the troubled PIGS economies.
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Immigration and Identity
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British anti-immigrant nationalist Enoch Powell gave his notorious 1968 Rivers of Blood speech during the debate over a race relations bill.
France's large Muslim population, largely descended from France's former North African colonies, has clashed with French police and with French nationalists who argue that Islamic values are contradictory to traditional French liberal and Christian values. French National Front leader Marine Le Pen won over 1/3 of the electorate in the 2017 French national election.
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Conflicts in African and the Middle East led to a humanitarian disaster as a flood of immigrants crossed the Mediterranean into Europe during the 2015 Refugee Crisis.
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Critics of the right-wing Alternative for Germany have accused the Islamophobic organization of neo-Nazism.
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Russia and Soviet Successor States
Separatist Movements
National minorities have continued to fight for independent states, such as the Basque National Liberation Movement (ETA) of Spain, and the Provisional Irish Republican Army in the United Kingdom.
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The Irish Troubles came to a negotiated end with the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, but were followed by the terrible Omagh bombing carried out by elements of the Real Irish Republican Army who were unhappy with the peace deal.
Terrorism
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The 1972 massacre of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics and the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 began the age of modern terrorism in Europe.
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Al-Qaeda inspired bombings were carried out in Madrid and London during the early 2000s.
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In 2011 Norwegian ultra-nationalist anti-immigrant right-wing terrorist Anders Breivik killed 77, mostly teenagers at a left-wing political youth retreat.
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Paris suffered two devastating Islamic State inspired attacks in 2015. A mass shooting at the headquarters of Charlie Hebdo, a satirical magazine that had published offensive cartoons of Muhammad, was followed by terror attacks across the city that killed 130.
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23 were killed and over 500 injured by Islamist terror attack in Manchester, England during a concert by American pop-singer Ariana Grande 2017.
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High Speed
In 1976 the French Concorde began supersonic transatlantic passenger jet travel.
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In the 1980s and 1990s the TEN-R (Trans-European high-speed rail network) drew Europe closer together than ever before.
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In the early 2000s, Finnish Nokia was the world's largest manufacturer of mobile phones and smartphones.
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Reproduction
The successful cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1996 was a major breakthrough in biomedical science.
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Women's Rights
Mary Robinson was the very popular President of Ireland during the 1990s.
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American comedian Conan O'Brien had a long running gag about his physical similarity to Finnish President Tarja Halonen and visited her when he did his show from Finland.
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LGBT Rights
Imprisonment of gay rights activists in gay concentration camps in Chechnya in 2017 drew worldwide protests.
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Lili Elbe was the first person to surgically transition from male to female.
Michael Dillon was the first person to surgically transition from female to male.
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Greens
Pop Culture, 1990s-Today
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MUSIC:
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